METHODS OF HUSBANDRY AND INTEGRATION INTO FARMING SYSTEM

Three kampung chicken farming systems are currently practised. A traditional farming
system with a small number of chickens is common for most village families. The birds are
left to scavenge in the backyard or in the garden, and are provided with limited facilities such
as a simple cage and a small amount of food scraps or sometimes rice bran. Five to 12 eggs
are brooded by hens in each clutch and the chicks are raised for three months. Losses of
young chickens can be high, sometimes reaching 100 percent. Nonetheless, under this
production system, farmers still get some benefit from selling or consuming the chicken.
However, the additional revenue from kampung chickens is unpredictable, and the chicken
activity is considered to be a part of family savings.
The second farming system is semi-intensive. Considerable care is given to the chickens,
including vaccination. As well, young chicks are given two weeks of full feeding after
separation from the hen. The number of birds kept can be as high as 50. The chickens are
usually allowed to scavenge in the backyard or in the garden after morning feeding and are
then brought back to their cages in the afternoon. Eggs and meat from young and culled
chickens are produced in this system. If meat is the main product, additional income of from
Rp. 10 000 to Rp. 150 000 per month could be generated if the system is well maintained. If
eggs are the main product, additional income may increase to Rp. 100 000 per month.
However, the number of farmers using this system is very small compared to the traditional
system.
The third system is an intensive farming system, in which kampung chickens are kept in
cages with a full feeding programme throughout the production period. This system is the
outcome of the government programme concerned with the intensification of kampung
chicken and the development of an improved poultry industry. The number of chickens kept
under this system needs to be at least 100 mature hens and they are usually in individual
cages for egg production. A farmer will normally look for pullets at the beginning of the
production period and at the replacement period for older hens. The cost of this system is
high because of the capital investment for cages, the cost of young pullets and commercial
feed, and the amount of labour required. With family management of 200 hens, the system
will yield as much as Rp. 180 000 per month (Diwyanto et al., 1996). Meat can also be
produced from culled hens, leading to the conclusion that the system is a suitable family
operation.
The intensive system for meat production has not become popular yet, because it requires
skill and more investment for breeding, hatching and keeping young chickens to market
weight. A government programme called Village Breeding Centre (VBC), introduced in the
late 1980s or early 1990s, seemed to have been unsuccessful. A ranch system was introduced
in the VBC on 6 m2 of land with 10 mature hens and 2 mature cockerels being mated. Eggs
were collected and incubated. This ranch system was found to be not efficient, so the
Research Institute for Animal Production (RIAP) attempted to introduce an Artificial
Insemination (AI) technique for intensive egg production as an alternative to the ranch
system. The programme seemed to work and was explained to the extension officers of the
Livestock District Office. However, the success of the AI programme has not been evaluated
yet.
Little labour is required for the traditional system, because the farmers are not using kampung
chickens as the main income source. Control of ND with the assistance of the government
could improve the traditional smallholder system. The semi-intensive system might also be
improved by increasing the skills of farmers, and through the provision of credit and the
creation of a reliable market. The intensive system could be developed by increasing the
numbers of birds kept and by providing input and output facilities close to the area where
development of the industry is planned. However, the industry has not produced enough
young chicks and this is a major constraint facing the kampung chicken farming system.
On the other hand, feed costs have increased, and this is regarded as a constraint for the
poultry industry. This situation could be worsened by the difficulties facing the economy
through increased prices of imported soybean meal, fishmeal and corn grain. Furthermore,
the national production of soybean and fishmeal is currently very poor.
The low productivity of the kampung chicken in meat and eggs is obvious compared to
improved chickens. The kampung chicken is a domesticated native bird that has not been
7
improved genetically through a major selection or cross-breeding programme.

RECENT AND PREDICTED CHANGES OF MARKET/INDUSTRY SIZE

As mentioned above, the kampung chicken industry has been limited to smallholders and
traditional farms. Production of meat and eggs from kampung chicken has been increasing
from year to year, although it is still lower than that of improved chicken. In 1996 the
population of the kampung chicken was almost one third of the improved chicken population.
It is generally accepted that kampung chicken has lower productivity and a longer production
cycle than improved chicken. However, the development of livestock industries, including
kampung chicken, will be determined by income growth. The population of kampung
chickens can be projected using estimates of the income elasticity demand for kampung
chicken products. Soedjana (1996) has projected changes in demand for the meat and eggs of
kampung chickens until the end of the Sixth Five Year Development Plan, PELITA VI

GOVERNMENT POLICIES

The government introduced a programme called INTAB (intensification of kampung chicken)
in the 1980s, targeting groups of farmers who co-operatively participated in the provincial
projects. As mentioned earlier, each project consisted of a group of 20 to 50 farmers
receiving a package of technology for kampung chicken farming. The package provided 100
mature female birds, medicines, cages and temporary feed consisting of commercial feed and
local ingredients (mostly rice bran). Training of the farmers was one part of the project and it
was usually undertaken before the farm was set up. The government offered technology to
each farmer. The local government also provided technical supervision during the term of the
project, which in most cases was one year. The project’s progress was also monitored. Project
supervisors assisted in the establishment of a farming system and in its business management,
including the securing of loans, banking and marketing activities.
Following the fast development of the improved poultry industry, the intensification of
kampung chicken should be encouraged. The availability of feed ingredients, medicines and
commercial rations for the improved poultry industry has led to intensification in kampung
chicken rearing and this should assist the industry to continue to exist and to expand.
Following the INTAB programme, another programme called INVAK was introduced to
vaccinate kampung chickens against ND. This programme has led the farmers to understand
that ND can be prevented by using an injection or an eye- or nose-drop vaccine. However, the
programme is not able to cover all kampung chickens reared under the traditional system,
even though the vaccine has been widely available throughout Indonesia from poultry shops.
(The number of poultry shops has been increasing.) In practice, it is difficult to vaccinate
scavenging chickens against ND. Scientists at the Research Institute for Veterinary Science
(RIVS) of the Agency for Agricultural Research and Development (AARD) have been
developing a new ND vaccine for kampung chickens. The vaccine was developed from a
local isolate and is given orally through chicken feed and/or laterally as a contact
transmission (Darminto, 1997). The results so far have indicated that vaccination in the
scavenging kampung chickens does not give sufficient protection against ND, as compared to
confined flocks of birds.
The attempt to increase the production of kampung chicken has to some extent been
successful, particularly in areas where feed, medicines and other facilities are easily obtained.
In remote areas with insufficient facilities, the programme has been less successful. Keeping
the chickens in cages provided with feed, water and medicine reportedly decreases mortality
and increases productivity. Furthermore, the government has recently launched a programme
called “Pengembangan Peternakan Rakyat Terpadu Berorientasi Agribisnis” or Integrated
Kampung Chicken Industry (Diwyanto et al., 1996). The programme has an agribusiness
orientation and is a continuation of the INTAB programme. Co-operators in this programme
include those who are experienced with kampung chicken farming. Each region is selected
according to the availability of support facilities, including physical facilities and
infrastructure. The number of chickens raised by each farmer depends on whether production
is for meat or eggs and whether a semi-intensive or fully intensive farming system is being
used. This programme is expected to increase the population of kampung chickens and
eventually to increase farmers’ incomes.

STATISTICS OF KAMPUNG CHICKENS

According to the Statistical Book on Livestock released by the Directorate General of
Livestock Services (1997), the total number of kampung chickens from the 27 provinces in
Indonesia has been increasing (DGLS, 1997). In 1990, the total number of kampung chickens
of all ages was 201 million birds; by 1996, their numbers had increased to almost 260 million
birds, or by approximately 29 percent. Kampung chickens are concentrated in Java island
where about 43 percent of the population is found. The numbers of kampung chickens seem
to be positively correlated with human population. However, they are rarely found in the city
areas because of space limitations.
Table 1.1. Numbers of kampung chickens in Indonesia
Number of kampung chickens
Change
per year
Region 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 %
(million) (million) (million) (million) (million) (million) (million)
Sumatra 55.30 58.57 63.20 67.99 72.59 78.99 83.41 8.47
Java 92.77 93.89 98.59 103.57 100.74 107.87 110.78 3.23
Kalimantan 11.20 11.80 18.82 13.12 14.53 14.79 16.64 8.09
Sulawesi 25.57 26.61 29.47 17.23 19.53 25.68 25.33 – 0.15
Bali & Nusa
Tenggara
13.80 15.62 15.94 17.30 18.42 19.21 19.98 7.47
Maluku, Irian
Jaya, East
Timor
2.72 3.10 3.45 3.68 4.10 3.54 3.74 6.17
Indonesia 201.36 209.59 229.47 222.89 229.91 250.08 259.88 4.84
Source: DGLS (1997)
The cities are now becoming an important market for kampung chickens. A survey reported
by Hermanto et al. (1995) has investigated consumption in villages and cities. The villages
and cities were divided on the basis of income into low, medium and high income groups. It
was found that more kampung chicken was consumed by the highest income group, reaching
2.36 kg per person per year, while about 1.54 and 0.84 kg meat per person per year was
consumed by the medium and low income groups, respectively. Further, it was found that the
3
consumption of meat from improved chickens was 2.55 kg per person per year for the highincome
group, compared to villagers who ate only 0.74 kg per person per year.
The development of kampung chicken as a livestock industry is influenced by the fact that the
improved poultry industry requires commercial rations, consisting mostly of imported
ingredients. Technology packages have been introduced by the government to increase the
population of kampung chickens particularly in the villages that are in close proximity to the
cities. This is being done because the cities are seen as a market for kampung chickens.
Most kampung chickens have a long marketing chain. Some village collectors carry bamboo
cages holding about 20 to 30 mature kampung chickens. The collectors travel around the
village, paying in cash for one or more live chickens from the village households. The village
collectors usually collect in the afternoon and sell early in the morning of the next day to
larger collectors who arrive from the cities. The transaction is in cash, for between 500 and
1000 birds each time. There are usually two or more big collectors in each collecting area and
they are provided with birds by ten or more local collectors. Although transactions can take
place every day, twice a week is perhaps more usual. Information about this trading system is
limited. It might not be found in every village in Java because its success depends on the
concentration of kampung chickens. The system is mostly found on the north coast of West
and Central Java while farmers in other areas sell their chickens in a local public market or
livestock market.
To support the development of the kampung chicken industry, the local government has
introduced an intensive farming system programme for kampung chickens. Since the 1980s,
some 3000 to 6000 kampung chickens have been given to 20 to 50 households, in a number
of projects. The size of the flock on each farm increased from seven birds in 1990 to nine
birds per household in 1996. The distribution of chickens depends on the local government’s
plan in setting up the programme each year. For example, the local government of West Java
introduced two projects in 1995 involving 7 000 mature kampung chickens for an intensive
farming system programme involving two groups of farmers in two districts. During the same
year, in South Sulawesi, 6 000 mature chickens were distributed to 60 households. If this
programme were to run in all 27 provinces, then after a decade about 270 groups of 20 to 50
farmers could be expected to have participated in the programme with 1.62 million birds
being allocated to these farmers. In such a case, only 0.6 percent of the total population of
birds would be kept by small number of farmers, while the greatest number of marketed
chickens would come from the traditional smallholders with less than 10 birds per household.
The contribution of kampung chickens to national egg production was 96 560 t in 1994 or
about 17 percent of total egg production. Although there are no consistent data on the
consumption of kampung chicken eggs, consumption appeared to be higher in the cities
(3.90 kg per person per year) than in the villages (2.93 kg per person per year). Any increase
in the intensive farming of kampung chicken is likely to increase its contribution to the
development of a national poultry industry

KAMPUNG CHICKENS: A KEY PART OF

Kampung chickens are raised using traditional production techniques by almost every village
household. They are a side-line activity and are not considered the main source of family
earnings. The members of a family generally work in crop cultivation, as labourers, or as
traders. Although some families keep more than 1 000 birds, they still work in other activities
for their main livelihood. In some cases, farmers have integrated their native chicken
operations with freshwater fish farming by constructing the cages above the fish-pond. This
enables the fish to use chicken feed and manure for food. The manure is commonly used as
organic fertilizer, but it is rarely collected on the smallholder farms. Significant amounts of
manure are collected on the large farms, and this can become a source of revenue for the
farmer.
Kampung chickens have been raised by most of the rural population of Indonesia and they
represent an important source of meat and eggs. Although consumed by the family on most
family occasions, kampung chickens are not able to provide consumption on a daily basis
because of their low production. Kampung chickens play a very important role in the cash
flow of rural people provided that they do not suffer from infectious diseases such as
Newcastle disease (ND). Kampung chickens do not have specific characteristics, and vary in
performance and plumage from bird to bird.
Apart from the kampung chicken, other breeds of native chicken have been commonly
regarded as local to a specific area. Examples are the Pelung chicken, a large singing cockerel
that originated in West Java, the Kedu, a high egg producer from Central Java, and the
Nunukan, a breed claimed to have originated in Eastern Kalimantan. These chickens,
however, exist only in small numbers and have been kept by only a small number of villagers

as exotic birds. Nonetheless, they are a livestock species that should be conserved. In fact the
Government of Indonesia through the National Committee on Genetic Resources has
considered including native chickens, including the kampung chicken, in its conservation
programme.

Livestock Service Reform in Indonesia: The DELIVERI Experience

The 5-year Department for International Development (DFID) funded Decentralized Livestock
Services in Eastern Indonesia (DELIVERI) project was an action-research project aiming to make
livestock service institutions more responsive to the needs of small-scale farmers. It was much
more successful than anyone expected.
The project worked concurrently at several levels: with field-level government staff and farmers
to research livestock production systems and identify opportunities for improved services, then
provided appropriate training to staff and farmers to establish and evaluate pilot projects; with
District and Provincial livestock service managers to research institutional constraints and
opportunities for supporting more client-oriented services, using the results of the field-level pilot
projects to convince them of their value; and with National livestock service managers to research
the policy framework and bureaucratic mechanisms for providing livestock services, using the
results of the field-level pilot projects, and increasingly enthusiastic field, district and provincial
livestock service staff to encourage them to change policies and practices to support more clientoriented
approaches.
When the project started in 1996, towards the end of the Suharto era, government services were
highly centralized, bureaucratic and inefficient, although policies promoting decentralization,
privatization and participation had been in place for a number of years. All budgets, services,
programs and projects continued to be designed and controlled from Jakarta, and regional and
district staff simply followed orders. During the first two years, although farmers and field-level
staff were enthusiastic about the results of the projects research and the new approaches, and a
few enlightened senior managers recognized their value, the project made little headway with the
bureaucracy. Then the economic, social and political crisis in 1997/8 pushed Suharto out of office
and the new era of “Reformasi” forced ill prepared government departments to rapidly implement
the long-shelved policies of “decentralizasi”, “privatizasi” and “participasi”. By that time the
DELIVERI project had a number of successful pilot projects up and running, and some
charismatic champions among livestock service staff at all levels, and suddenly found itself in
high demand.
By the end of the project livestock services were significantly more available to smallholder
farmers in the project areas, more client-oriented, and higher quality. A customer satisfaction
survey in 2000 found that 78% of farmers were satisfied or very satisfied with livestock services
in general compared with only 16% in 1998, and the improved availability and quality of services
has encouraged farmers to invest more in livestock enterprises resulting in a substantial increases
in income. By the same time, government policies, practices and budgets were changing to
support the development and implementation of more client-oriented services. The Department
had a new people-oriented vision “Healthy and productive communities through the development
of locally-based livestock resources”, new decentralized interdepartmental structures and new
mechanisms to co-operate across departmental boundaries, and over 50% of central government
livestock service budgets incorporated more “participatory” approaches. The new approaches
were also starting to spread to other sectors at district, province and national level2.
The surprising success of the DELIVERI project illustrates several critical factors, which
influence whether the results of research can influence policy. Some are about the ‘location’ of
the research within the pre-existing policy environment:
• Focus – the project was undertaking research on how to implement the government’s
well established, but not yet implemented policies of decentralization privatization and
participation. The research had political legitimacy, but, initially at least, little political
influence.
• Close linkages with policy-makers – the project built on DFID relationships in the
livestock sector at field, district, provincial and national level, that had been established
through collaborative work over the preceding 10 years. It had champions who were able
to bring the results to the attention of policy makers and senior managers.
• Timing – the project was in place, well established and therefore able to capitalize on the
new policy opportunities presented by the economic and political collapse in 1998, and
rush for “reformasi”.
Others are about how the research was done:
• The DELIVERI project had a clear strategy for policy influence from the start – it had
explicit sequenced activities, first to undertake field research and establish, pilot projects,
then research the policies and practices government livestock service provision, then
synthesize convincing evidence to convince people at all levels of the value of the new
approaches, and finally to work with senior policy makers, planners and managers to help
them to make the necessary changes to policy, organizational structure and practice to
promote them on a wider scale. There is a clear and necessary role for research at all
stages of the policy process, if high-level policy change is to implemented in practice.
• Researchers and other staff worked closely with all stakeholders, including farmers,
community leaders, local, district, provincial and central government, and other
organizations involved in livestock services. Involving policy-makers and practitioners in
identifying the issues, undertaking the research, and implementing the results is likely to
be more successful that undertaking the research in isolation then seeking to interest
policy makers in the results afterwards. Establishing synergistic networking between
different stakeholder groups, so they could share their own interpretation of the results
was a particularly effective mechanism for communication.
• DELIVERI was a “process” project. Within the overall project framework,
implementation was iterative – activities were based on an assessment of the results of
previous activities, and the ever-changing context, and the project was flexible enough to
be able to respond to the political opportunity presented by the economic crisis in 1998.
• The project used a quality management approach – all activities were “fit-for-thepurpose”
rather than individually perfect. Much of the research was qualitative, or if
quantitative, based on small sample sizes, yet was good enough to convince senior
planners and policy makers.
• A major effort was made to synthesize and disseminated high-quality tailor-made
information to all of the stakeholder groups. The project developed a communications
strategy during the first year, which identified the key targets, their information needs and
preferences, and the most effective mechanism to deliver it. Personal meetings were the
most effective mechanism for senior policy makers, supported with attractive printed
materials, and video clips. An illustrated diary, with attractive summaries of key findings
and recommendations was very popular with field staff and service managers.
Particularly since government budgetary constraints prevented many departments from
producing their own.
• The project’s multidisciplinary team of researchers, practitioners and communicators
from a wide range of backgrounds focused on individual people at all levels, using
collaborative research, specific training activities, personal follow-up, coaching and
mentoring to generate enthusiasm.

Environmental and housing systems for rabbit

Like other livestock species, rabbits need protection from adverse environmental conditions. This includes protection from predators. While ample sunlight and ventilation are important, extremes of both may well limit production. Air quality is of major concern in the control of respiratory diseases, such as pasteurellosis and pneumonia. Under controlled experimental regimens, Stephen (1981) and Poujardieu and Matheron (1984) investigated varying temperature and humidity stress effects on growth and feeding performances of rabbit fryers. Stephen (1981) observed optimal productivity at 18°C (versus 5° and 30°C) and 70 percent humidity (versus 60 and 80 percent) of 37.4 g average daily gain and 4.23 feed efficiency values.

It is established that high ambient temperatures can cause infertility in breeding rabbits, bucks being more sensitive than does, and 30°C is considered the threshold point beyond which infertility may result. A number of practical measures for alleviating heat stress have been documented by Cheeke et al. (1987); these include providing cool water, ample shade, evaporation cooling, appropriate housing design and placement, and the use of young and potent bucks.

The rabbit's basic shelter needs are modest. It is fortuitous that a variety of locally available building materials used in the construction of simple sheds, hutches, nest boxes, hay racks and feeding and watering equipment are generally abundant in tropical developing countries. Suitable shelter for rabbits can be made in an outdoor shed, veranda or spare room, or a complete hutch (cage with roof and siding) can be constructed. Shed designs should be of a narrow width (less than 6 m) with open sides to facilitate natural ventilation. The run of the shed can be of any length and the height can be designed with a chimney effect to provide cooling through natural air movement (Cheeke et al., 1987). In semi-desert regions where wood is scarce or costly, rabbit shelters can be constructed with mud and grass thatch (Owen, 1981). The rabbit dome concept- an underground earthen shelter which offers relief from high daytime temperatures - is used in arid areas (Gentry, 1983; Finzi, Scappini and Tani, 1988). However, floor-rearing systems of rabbit production, common in the Near East, however, are usually associated with an increased incidence of parasitism (coccidiosis) as a result of direct floor contamination.

Hutches can be of various shapes. Durable and inexpensive building materials include bamboo, raffia palm, "bush sticks", woven wood straps, bricks or mortar (McNitt, 1980; Owen, 1981; Cheeke, 1983; Lukefahr and Goldman, 1985). Each breeding doe unit requires a cage floor area of lless than 1 m², while each fryer unit requires from 0.05 to 0.10 m². Regardless of the construction material used, the hutch should be kept clean and comfortable under the direct control of the farmer.

Similarly, accessory equipment-hay racks, nest boxes, salt and feeding and watering containers - can be made from a diversity of products, including such refuse items as bottles and tins. Nest boxes made of wood, clay, metal and basket materials are useful for accommodating young litters and they should be supplied with fine-stemmed grass hay, cotton, shredded paper, wood shavings or similar insulatory material to enhance litter survival. Feeding and watering equipment must be readily accessible, voluminous and regularly cleaned. Clean water should always be available.

Rabbit losses caused by predators and thieves are a common threat to farmers. Proven control measures include sturdy, well-designed hutches; a protective fence; a guard dog; the close proximity of the rabbitry to the compound; the installment of noisy alarms such as bells, chimes and gongs, spring-loaded rodent-traps, locks and native taboo deterrents.

Disease control measures for rabbit

When a high standard of hygiene and careful management are practised (IFS, 1978), one distinct attribute of rabbit farming is the relatively low incidence of epidemic diseases. Rabbits do not require routine vaccination or medication for the prevention or treatment of specific diseases. This is an important factor since, in other livestock species, a lack of appropriate drugs is sometimes a major constraint to successful production. When a disease does occur in rabbit farming, local remedies can often be effectively used in treatment. One common disease condition, referred to as ear mites and caused by an external parasite, Psoroptes cuniculi, can be both prevented and treated by applying drops of an oil-kerosene solution directly inside the ear canal. Vegetable oil, red palm oil and even clean engine oil may be used. For the control of digestive disorders, diarrhoea and constipation for example, various medicinal herbs and green vegetables used in Cameroonian tribal cultures have been observed to provide similar therapeutic results in rabbits (Lukefahr and Goldman, 1985). Other conditions, such as abscesses, cannibalism, skin mange and warbles, have likewise been inexpensively controlled with proven local measures.

In tropical countries, Owen (1976) observed a trend of lower disease incidence and/or higher productivity levels in rabbit operations managed as small-scale family units as opposed to intensive, commercial units. In large operations, on the other hand, management quality per animal may be inferior and close confinement may mean greater likelihood of rapid disease outbreaks, particularly of myxomatosis and pasteurellosis. Where large central rabbit operations exist, therefore, it is imperative that stringent levels of hygiene, the culling of diseased animals and proper quarantine measures be maintained.

Two diseases of major global concern to rabbit producers are coccidiosis and pasteurellosis. While coccidiosis can largely be prevented and treated, the disease often goes undiagnosed and serious physical damage occurs; for example, liver damage and severe weight loss. Raising rabbits on the ground aggravates the problem because of the more direct exposure to the infectious agent. Various sulpha-based drugs have shown good results in controlling rabbit coccidiosis (Aduma, 1978). Sanitation is a critical determinant in the control of episodic frequency and morbidity levels due to coccidiosis outbreaks.

Pasteurellosis is a disease caused by a bacterium (Pasteurella multocida) which affects nearly all body tissues. Symptoms of the disease include muco-purulent nasal discharge, pneumonia, dermal abscesses, conjunctivitis, infertility and death. Only limited success is noted with treatment using broad-spectrum and sulphabased drugs. Moreover, only a culture test can confirm definitive exposure to P. multocida. In well-managed rabbit herds, however, the disease is rarely a problem. At present, the best means of controlling pasteurellosis is through correct housing design, strict culling of infected animals and/or selection of healthy stock and quarantine. Some laboratories and universities have developed specific pathogen-free (SPF) stock that are pasteurella-free. Projects have in some cases established rabbit populations through SPF stock importations. General guidelines for rabbit stock importation, with regard to disease control and sound genetic resource utilization, are given in the Box.

Pasteurellosis has been detected in certain rabbit projects in developing countries and it has been the opinion of project managers that the disease was introduced by the original imported stock. In one major rabbit project in China, some rabbits suffered sneezing, nasal discharge and matted inner forepaws, symptoms of a seemingly rare respiratory disease. A team of veterinarians was perplexed as to the cause of the disease, but a rabbit specialist later recognized the disease as a classic case of pasteurellosis (Milne, 1982). Unfortunately, this scenario has occurred repeatedly in several other countries.

A paper from China by Xu, Du and Liu (1988) reported the serious outbreak of a new viral disease (rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus -RHDV) which has manifested itself in parts of Asia and Europe, and more recently in North America. Body organs such as the lungs, liver and spleen are severely affected. To date, no effective treatment is available since the immunological mechanism is not understood. Strict quarantine measures to control further spread of this disease are now being implemented (Patton, 1989).

Feeds and feeding under tropical conditions for rabbit

One of the advantages of production in tropical countries is that rabbits can be fed forages and agricultural byproducts not suitable for human consumption. In general, if available feedstuffs are suitable for poultry production, then it is more efficient to produce poultry rather than rabbits. The role that rabbit production can play is in the utilization of fibrous by-products that are useful neither for poultry nor swine, and of forages that may be available in insufficient quantities for ruminants. When these feeds make up the bulk of the diet for rabbits, the use of a small quantity of concentrate feed to improve performance can be justified.

The growth performance of rabbits in studies reported from tropical countries is generally in the range of 10 to 20 g per day, in contrast with the 35 to 40 g per day which is commonly observed in temperate regions. The lower result in the former case may be attributed to a number of factors, including heat stress as well as diet.

Only limited data are available on the nutritional value of tropical feeds for rabbits, and even less data exist on feeding systems and programmes. The most extensive compilation of nutritional data on rabbit feeds is that of Raharjo (1987), who evaluated a number of Indonesian forages and agricultural by-products. Ayoade, Makhamvera and Kayange (1985) reported on the composition of a number of African forages that have potential as rabbit feeds. The tropical legume forages, in general, have a high content of digestible energy and protein, while the tropical grasses are characterized by an extremely low digestibility (see Table 2).

Thus, the selection of forages can be of major importance. In Indonesia, for example. producers have had very little success with the use of Setaria spp. as rabbit forage. Even though the grass would appear to be a suitable feed, it is almost completely indigestible (see Table 3). Tropical grasses have a cellular structure that resists degradation in the digestive tract. They also have a high content of poorly digested constituents such as vascular tissue, parenchyma bundle sheaths and epidermis, and a low content of the more readily digested mesophyll cells.

Many more data of the type shown in Tables 2 and 3 are needed on tropical feeds to allow recommendation of the most useful feedstuffs and to dissuade farmers from using forages that are very low in nutritional value.

Many tropical feeds contain toxicants and some tropical legumes contain toxic amino acids or alkaloids. Leucaena, for example, contains mimosine, while cassava contains cyanogens. By using a mixture of forages, the concentration of specific toxins can be kept to non-hazardous levels. Thus, potentially valuable feeds such as leucaena can be utilized as components of forage mixtures.

Rabbits can be raised successfully without the use of grain in the diet. Raharjo et al. (1986a), for example, used a diet in which all of the protein and energy were provided by alfalfa meal and wheat milling by-products, and it was found that production of does over several parities was adequate. Because energy and protein needs are highest during lactation, a concentrate supplement could be used for lactating does, while the weaned rabbits could be raised entirely on forage and agricultural by-products such as wheat bran or rice bran. Rice bran is an excellent energy source for rabbits (Raharjo, 1987), and is available in large quantities in many developing countries. However, it is susceptible to rancidity, which can reduce palatability, and care should be taken to avoid rancid rice bran in feed.

The amount of forage offered should be close to the amount voluntarily consumed. Fresh forage should be provided at least twice daily and the uneaten material removed before additional feed is offered to prevent spoilage. With palatable forages, the daily intake of fresh forage for a doe or weaned rabbits will be approximately 400 to 500 g per animal per day and the amount of concentrate offered should be approximately 50 g per animal per day. Either a purchased commercial concentrate or a home-made compounded supplement consisting of garden and table refuse may be used. In addition, rabbits require salt in their diet.

The palatability of forages is an important factor in rabbit production, particularly when the forages are expected to provide a major part of the daily nutrient intake. Raharjo and Cheeke (1985) and Raharjo (1987) evaluated a number of Indonesian forages in feed preference tests. In general, tropical legumes were preferred over grasses and agricultural by-products, with the exception of gliricidia (Gliricidia sepium), a legume which proved to be unpalatable. Leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala) is a very palatable feed for rabbits, even though it contains the toxic amino acid, mimosine. Erythrina (Erythrina lithosperma), another legume, was well accepted. Sweet potato vines were palatable to rabbits in the study of Raharjo (1987), while banana and papaya leaves were poorly accepted. Most of the grasses, such as setaria, brachiaria and elephant grass, were found to be less palatable than the legumes.

The leaves of trees in many areas can be used to provide forage in the dry season. Besides the tropical legumes mentioned previously, trees with potential for feeding include the mulberry (Morus spp.), used in India, Brazil and Costa Rica as a forage, and black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia), grown extensively in China for rabbit feed. Ramie is utilized in Brazil, where it is considered a highly palatable and nutritious green feed for rabbits.

PIGEONS

Pigeon keeping is very popular in the Mediterranean region; for instance, in the Nile delta, dovecotes are common in both rural and urban areas. Pigeons can contribute substantially to household diets and income. They do not compete with other animals for space and feed; if fed by their owners, the birds tend to remain in the neighbourhood, but they are able to find feed within a radius of 15 km, thereby making use of the different vegetation cycles of local plants. In low-input systems, feeding is necessary only during the short period when the animals are getting accustomed to their new home. Pigeons adapt easily to urban conditions and are a common sight as they scavenge in town squares and markets. Pigeons nest in natural or artificial holes in rocks, caves, towers and other buildings. Dovecotes are normally located on rooftops, which makes pigeon keeping possible even for people who live in multi-storey buildings - an important consideration in developing country towns. Dovecotes are usually constructed of wood or from mats attached to a wooden frame. Pigeons reach maturity at about six months of age; incubation lasts 18 to 20 days and both sexes are involved in the hatching. The newly hatched squabs are fed a special substance that is produced in the crop of the adults ("crop milk") and, later, eat regurgitated feed. Each clutch contains two eggs and, if no supplementary feed is given, pigeons brood about five times a year. Ten couples can produce eight squabs per month, which can be collected at the age of about four weeks, when their live weight will have reached about 400 g, just before they are able to fly. In more intensive systems, females lay two new eggs when the squabs are still present in the previous nest, requiring a two-nest structure. Surprisingly, in spite of being easy to raise and cheap to produce, this species is very rarely considered in urban food security programmes

RABBITS IN INDONESIA

A university teacher in Malang (Indonesia) started to keep rabbits that he purchased from the market. They carried diseases (mainly internal and external parasites) but, after treating them for a few months, the teacher managed to bring the animals back to health and, by keeping them in cages with wire floors or on bamboo slats, he and his wife were able to start a breeding nucleus with clean animals. The family then started to make a small side income by curing other people's animals (using medicines against parasites) and for some time rabbit keeping became popular, also because other groups started this type of business

Straw, dry leaves and even newspapers can be used to absorb the urine and must be changed when they become wet. Animals must be provided with water and fresh grass, leaves or kitchen wastes every day, and care should be taken not to throw the feed on to the litter - more than 15 percent is spoiled in this way. A small rack is sufficient to avoid feed spoilage and to improve hygiene. Disease incidence and mortality are very low but, at the first suspicion of sickness, as with rabbits, the animals must be slaughtered and can be eaten if they are large enough. Raising rabbits, particularly in towns, can be difficult because of lack of space, insufficient feed availability, insufficient resources for buying or constructing cages and nests and the complexity of managing the animals' reproduction efficiently. In these respects, guinea pigs may be a suitable alternative because they are smaller and easier to keep.

Goat-Sheep Become the New Idol

Beyond the controversial topic of goat–sheep export to Malaysia due to its indigenous species, Malaysia market is still open widely for Indonesia. For the last few years, Indonesia has succeeded in entering Malaysia market. Directorate General of Livestock noted that the quantity of Indonesia's goat-sheep exported to Malaysia has been increasing. From 400 goat-sheep exported to Malaysia in 2004, the following years achieving 1.225, then increased to 6.020 in 2006. In 2007, Indonesia was able to export 31.535 goat-sheep to Malaysia. The opportunity of export market not only comes from Malaysia, but also comes from Saudi Arabia and Brunei Darussalam. The Director of Ruminant Livestock-Directorate General Livestock, Fauzi Luthan said, “Arab always orders at least 2,5 million goat-sheep from outside of the country.” Unfortunately, Indonesian could not able to fulfill the demand. “Even in a small number, our goat-sheep has never succeeded in entering Saudi Arabia,” said Secretary General of Indonesia Goat-Sheep Breeders Association, Abdul Jabbar Zulkifli. In the local market, the consumption of goat-sheep showed an increasing trend, even though the total meat consumption has decreased. Statistical data from Directorate General Livestock (DGLS) in 2007 noted that the meat consumption per capita per year of Indonesian people in 2006 has decreased from 5, 18 kg in 2005 to 4, 13 kg.
DGLS also noted that in 2006, the consumption of goat-sheep meat has contributed 41,93% (0,26 kg) of the ruminant meat consumption, whereas it is only 15,01% contribution to the total meat consumption (0.62 kg).

MILK & DAIRY PRODUCTSLIVESTOCK

The Livestock Products Team has the mandate to:

To contribute to poverty alleviation; To develop mechanisms for quality control and management of food safety; and To promote the introduction of efficient animal product processing and marketing through adapting and disseminating technologies and upgrading technical and management skills.

To this end, the Team assists member countries in exploiting the opportunities for livestock development and poverty alleviation through the promotion of safe and efficient livestock product processing and marketing. Our main emphasis is on helping the smallholder sector through upgrading the small-scale processing techniques and assisting with the organisation of marketing systems. This is achieved through a combination of headquarters-based and field activities and collaboration with the selected external institutions and organisations.

EGG INDUSTRY

Egg salting is one way of keeping eggs last longer commonly practiced. Salted eggs are one of protein sources easily available and relatively cheap. Salted eggs as a food stuff being preserved have much higher resistance of being bad/damaged compared with fresh eggs. Eggs generally contain 13% of protein, 12% of fat, minerals, and vitamins. Besides lasting longer, salted eggs are popular/preferred because they are more delicious than ordinary fresh plain eggs.

The biggest consumers of salted egg products are middle to low class society as these eggs can be a cheap source of animal protein. Most of salted consumers are people living in big cities. In addition to being consumption in households, other potential consumers are restaurants, food stalls, ships, hospitals, dormitories, catering services, etc.

Development in salted egg industry can encourage development in duck breeding/farming, and thus it will improve income of duck breeders, who are mostly people of rural areas. Hence, salted egg industry can be one of promising businesses that can improve the welfare of middle to low class people and it can decrease dependence on expensive source of protein such as meat.

Main production areas of salted eggs are generally located in the same areas of producing centres of salted eggs. In 2004, the biggest producers of duck eggs were West Java Province with the production of 37,447 tons, South Sulawesi Province producing 22,153 tons, and South Kalimantan with the production of 20,105 tons. In West Java Province, centres of duck eggs are among others found in the regencies of Indramayu and Cirebon. In Kapetakan subdistrict, Cirebon Regency, which is the survey area of this study, there are 95 units of small and middle scale business of salted eggs. In Losari Subdistrict Cirebon Regency, there are 10 units of small and middle ones. In addition to those, there are also other producers of salted eggs having their business in Cirebon Regency and its surrounding areas.

The poultry farm

Poultry farming is raising chickens, turkeys, ducks and other fowl for meat or eggs. Poultry farms can be: 1. Breeding farms where they raise poultry for meat, or 2. Layer farms where they produce eggs.
The ‘best’ breeds depend on what you want from them. Good egg layers are Rhode Island Reds [brown eggs] and Leghorns [white eggs]. Great meat comes from Arbor Acres, Ross, and Peterson chickens which were named after the breeders who raised them. Some hens are raised for egg production and meatiness. New Hampshires, Plymouth Rocks, and Wyandottes are good ones.
In the old times, poultry farming was the farmer’s wife throwing some feed out to the chickens who were wandering, loose, around the yard. She would find the eggs—wherever they might be laid, before they got rotten.
Today, poultry raising is big business. Each step is done by someone who knows what they are doing. Just like the dairy farmer we visited, the breeder wants to get the best chicken he can. 'Best’ might mean a meatier chicken, one with less or more fat, or one that lays more eggs or eggs more often. The breeder might hire veterinarians or scientists to help him choose the characteristics he wants in his chickens. Breeders are known for their special kinds of chickens and no one is allowed to copy them.
Food costs are important to poultry farmers. Feed is about 60% of the cost of raising poultry. Fowl are usually fed a combination of maize, soy, rice bran and cereals.
Poultry is mostly used for meat and eggs but other products come from these animals. Duck and goose feathers are used for pillows and insulated clothing. That “down-filled” jacket: GOOSE FEATHERS! Manure is used as fertilizer. Eggs are used in paint and medical vaccines.
California , Indiana , Iowa , Ohio , and Pennsylvania produce the most eggs in the U.S. Alabama , Arkansas , and Georgia produce the most chickens in the U.S. The highest turkey producers are Minnesota and North Carolina

Livestock

Livestock is the term used to refer (singularly or plurally) to a domesticated intentionally reared in an agricultural setting to make produce such as animal food or fibre, or for its labour. The term generally does not include poultry or farmed fish.

Livestock may be raised for subsistence or for profit. Raising animals (animal husbandry) is an important component of modern agriculture. It has been practiced in many societies, since the transition to farming from hunter-gather lifestyles.

Origins of livestock

The maze of livestock pens and walkways at Chicago's stockyards, ca. 1941.

Animal-rearing has its origins in the transition of societies to settled farming communities rather than hunter-gatherer lifestyles. Animals are ‘domesticate

d’ when their breeding and living conditions are controlled by humans. Over time, the collective behaviour, life cycle, and physiology of livestock have changed radically. Many modern farm animals are unsuited to life in the wild. Goats and sheep were domesticated around 8000 BCE in Asia. Swine or pigs were domesticated by 7000 BCE in the Middle East andChina. The earliest evidence of horse domestication dates to around

Types of livestock

The term "livestock" is nebulous and may be defined narrowly or broadly.

On a broader view, livestock refers to any breed or population of animal kept by humans for a useful, commercial purpose. This can mean domestic animals, semi-domestic animals, or captive wild animals. Semi-domesticated refers to animals which are only lightly domesticated or of disputed status. These populations may also be in the process of domestication

In practical discussions, some people may use the term livestock to refer just to domestic animals or even just to red meat animals

Purpose of animal rearing

A Brown Swiss cow in the Swiss Alps

‘Livestock’ are defined, in part, by their end purpose as the production of food or fiber, or labour.

The economic value of livestock includes:

Meat

the production of a useful form of dietary protein and energy.

Dairy products

Mammalian livestock can be used as a source of milk, which can in turn easily be processed into other dairy products such as yogurt, cheese, butter, ice cream, kefir, and kumis. Using livestock for this purpose can often yield several times the food energy of slaughtering the animal outright.

Fiber

Livestock produce a range of fiber/textiles. For example, sheep and goats produce wool and mohair; cows, deer, and sheep can make leather; and bones, hooves and horns of livestock can be used.

Fertilizer

Manure can be spread on fields to increase crop yields. This is an important reason why historically, plant and animal domestication have been intimately linked. Manure is also used to make plaster for walls and floors and can be used as a fuel for fires. The blood and

bone of animals are also used as fertilizer.

Labour

Animals such as horses, donkey, and yaks can be used for mechanical energy. Prior to steam power livestock were the only available source of non-human labour. They are still used for this purpose in many places of the world, including ploughing fields, transporting goods, and military functions.

Land management

The grazing of livestock is sometimes used as a way to control weeds and undergrowth. For example, in areas prone to wild fires, goats and sheep are set to graze on dry scrub which removes combustible material and reduces the risk of fires.

During the history of animal husbandry many secondary products have arisen in an attempt to increase carcass utilization and reduce waste. For example, animal offal and non-edible parts may be transformed into products such as pet food and fertilizer. In the past such waste products were sometimes also fed to livestock as well. However, intra-species recycling poses a disease risk, threatening animal and even human health (see (BSE), bovine spongiform encephalopathyscrapie and prion). Due primarily to BSE (mad cow disease), feeding animal scraps to animals has been banned in many countries, at least in regards to ruminants.

Farming practices

Goat family with 1-week-old young

Main article: animal husbandry

Farming practices vary dramatically world-wide and between types of animals.

Livestock are generally kept in an enclosure, are fed by human-provided food and are intentionally bred, but some livestock are not enclosed, or are fed by access to natural foods, or are allowed to breed freely, or any combination thereof.

Livestock raising historically was part of a nomadic or pastoral form of material culture. The herding of camels and reindeer in some parts of the world remain unassociated with sedentary agriculture. The transhumance form of herding in the Sierra Nevada Mountains of California still continues as cattle, sheep or goats are moved from winter pasture in lower lying valleys to spring pasture and summer pasture in the foothills and alpine regions as the seasons progress. Cattle were raised on the open range in the Western United States and Canada, as well as on the Pampas of Argentina and other prairie and steppe regions of the world.

The enclosure of livestock in pastures and barns is a relatively new development in the history of agriculture. When cattle are enclosed, the type of ‘enclosure’ may vary from a small crate or to a large fenced pasture. The type of feed may vary from natural growing grass, to highly sophisticated processed feed. Animals are usually intentionally bred through artificial insemination or through supervised mating.

Indoor production systems are generally used only for pigs and poultry, as well as for veal cattle. Indoor animals are generally farmed intensively, as large space requirements would make indoor farming unprofitable and impossible. However, indoor farming systems are controversial due to: the waste they produce, odour problems, the potential for groundwater contamination and animal welfare concerns. (For further discussion on intensively farmed livestock, see factory farming, and intensive pig farming).

Other livestock are farmed outside, although the size of enclosure and level of supervision may vary. In large open ranges animals may be only occasionally collected in "round-ups" or "musters". Herding dogs such as sheep dogs and cattle dogs, may be used for mustering as are cowboys, stockmen and jackaroos on horseback or in helicopters. Since the advent of barbed wire (in the 1870s) and electric fence technology, fencing pastures has become much more feasible and pasture management simplified. Rotation of pasturage is a modern technique for improving nutrition and health while avoiding environmental damage to the land. In some cases very large numbers of animals may be kept in indoor or outdoor feeding operations (on feedlots), where the animals' feed is processed, offsite or onsite, and stored onsite then fed to the animals.

Livestock - especially cattle - may be branded to indicate ownership, but in modern farming identification is more likely to be indicated by means of ear tags than branding. This is not only more humane, but also has other advantages such as reducing the likelihood of infection and damage to the livestock Sheep are also frequently marked by means of ear tags. As fears of mad cow disease and other epidemic illnesses mount, the use of microchip identification to monitor and trace animals in the food production system is increasingly common, and sometimes required by governmental regulations.

Modern farming techniques seek to minimize human involvement, increase yield, and improve animal health. Economics, quality and consumer safety all play a role in how animals are raised. Drug use and feed supplements (or even feed type) may be regulated, or prohibited, to ensure yield is not increased at the expense of consumer health, safety or animal welfare. Practices vary around the world, for example growth hormone use is permitted in the United States but not in the European Union or in countries selling meat/produce in the EU such as Australia and New Zealand.

Disease

Livestock diseases compromise animal welfare, reduce productivity, and in rare cases can infect humans.

Animal diseases may be tolerated; reduced through animal husbandry; or reduced through antibiotics and vaccines. In developing countries animal diseases are tolerated in animal husbandry, resulting in considerably reduced productivity, especially given the low health-status of many developing country herds. Gains in productivity through disease management is often a first step taken in implementing an agriculture policy.

Disease management can be achieved through changes in animal husbandry. These measures may aim to control spread by: controlling animal mixing, controlling entry to farm lots and the use of protective clothing, and quarantining sick animals. Disease management may be controlled by the use of vaccines and antibiotics. Antibiotics may also be used as a growth-promoter. The issue of antibiotic resistance has limited the practices of preventative dosing such as antibiotic-laced feed.

Countries will often require the use of veterinary certificates are often required before transporting, selling or showing animals. Disease-free areas are often rigorously enforced, and may be notified to the OIE.

Livestock transportation and marketing

Main article: Livestock transportation

Grass-fed cattle, saleyards, Walcha, NSW

Since many livestock are herd animals, they were historically driven to market "on the hoof" to a town or other central location. During the period after the American Civil War, the abundance of Longhorn cattle in Texas and the demand for beef in Northern markets led to the popularity of the Old West cattle drive. The method is still used in some parts of the world. Trail driving bulls is not common due to their strength and aggressive nature, although the Geier Hitch technique will permit some control of a bull via lead rope. Truck transport is now common in developed countries. Local and regional livestock auctions and commodity markets facilitate trade in livestock. In other areas livestock may be bought and sold in a bazaar, such as may be found in many parts of Central Asia, or a flea market type setting such as the in First Monday Trade DaysCanton, Texas.

Stock shows and fairs

Stock shows and fairs are events where people bring their best livestock to compete with one another. Organizations like 4-H and FFA encourage young people to raise livestock for show purposes. Special feeds are purchased and hours may be spent prior to the show grooming the animal to look its best. In cattle, sheep, and swine shows, the winning animals are frequently auctioned off to the highest bidder and the funds placed into a scholarship fund for its owner. The movie Grand Champion, released in 2004, is the story of a young Texas boy's experience raising a prize steer.

Poultry Building, Western Fair 1923.

Animal welfare and surmised rights

The issue of rearing livestock for human benefit raises the issue of the relationship between humans and animals, in terms of the status of animals and obligations of people.

Animal welfare is the viewpoint that animals under human care should be treated in such a way that they do not suffer unnecessarily. What is ‘unnecessary’ suffering may vary. Generally though, the animal welfare perspective is based on an interpretation of scientific research on farming practices.

By contrast, Animal rights is the viewpoint that using animals for human benefit is, by its nature, generally exploitation regardless of the farming practice used. It is a position based on anthropomorphism, in which individuals seek to place themselves in the position of an animal. Animal rights activists would generally be vegan or vegetarian, whereas it is consistent with the animal welfare perspective to eat meat depending on production processes.

Animal welfare groups generally seek to generate public discussion on livestock rearing practices and secure greater regulation and scrutiny of livestock industry practices. Animal rights groups usually seek the abolition of livestock farming, although some groups may recognise the necessity of achieving more stringent regulation first. Animal welfare groups, such as the RSPCA, are often – in first world countries - given a voice at governmental level in the development of policy. Animal rights groups find it harder to find methods of input, and may go further and advocate civil disobedience or violence.

Animal husbandry practices that have led to legislation in some countries and that may be the subject of current campaigns

• Confinement of livestock in small and unnatural spaces: For economic or health reasons animals may be kept in the minimum size of cage or pen with little or no space to exercise or engage in normal actions or grooming. Close confinement is most common with chickens, pigs, and calves raised for veal.
• Unnatural living environments: Even when allowed to move, animals may be denied a natural environment. For example ducks may be kept in free-range barns but have no access to water in which to swim. Cattle may be kept in barns with no chance to graze. Dogs or cats may be kept indoors with no chance to hunt.
• Overuse of pharmaceuticals and hormones: Intensive raising of livestock may lead to a health problems and the necessity to use antibiotics to prevent disease. In some cases antibiotics and hormones are also fed to livestock to produce rapid weight gain.
• Overwork and exhaustion of animals: Where livestock are used as a source of power they may be pushed beyond their limits to the point of exhaustion. The public visibility of this abuse meant it was one of the first areas to receive legislation in the nineteenth century in European countries but it still goes on in parts of Asia.
• Modification to the bodies of living animals: Broiler hens may be de-beaked, pigs have deciduous teeth pulled, cattle de-horned and branded, dairy cows and sheep have tails cropped, merino sheep mulesed, many types of male animals castrated.
• Long distance transportation of livestock: Animals may be transported long distances to market and slaughter. Overcrowded conditions, heat from tropical-area shipping and lack of food, water and rest breaks have been subject to legislation and protest. (See Live Export)
• Slaughter of livestock: Slaughter was an early target for legislation. Campaigns continue to target Halal and Kosher religious ritual slaughter.

Environmental impact

According to the 390 page 2006 United Nations report "Livestock's Long Shadow", the livestock sector (primarily cows, chickens, and pigs) emerges as one of the top two or three most significant contributors to our most serious environmental problems, at every scale from local to global. The report recommends an immediate halving of the world's livestock numbers, in order to mitigate the worst effects of climate change.

Livestock is responsible for 18% of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions as measured in CO₂ equivalents. By comparison, the world's entire transportation sector emits 13.5% of the CO₂.

In the US, which produces about 23% of global greenhouse gases, agriculture accounts for 7% of total greenhouse gas emissions (in CO₂ equivalents), while transportation produces more than 25%. By comparison, the energy sector, which includes transportation, accounted for more than 85% of US greenhouse gas emissions in 2004.

Agriculture produces 65% percent of human-related nitrous oxide (which has 296 times the global warming potential of CO₂) and 37% of all human-induced methane (which is 23 times as warming as CO₂). It also generates 64% of the ammonia, which contributes to acid rain and acidification of ecosystems .

The findings of the United Nations report suggest that addressing the issue of livestock should be a major policy focus when dealing with problems of land degradation, climate change and air pollution, water shortage and water pollution, and loss of biodiversity.

A research team at Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine in Hokkaido found that supplementing the animals' diet with cysteine, a type of amino acid, and nitrate can reduce the methane gas produced, without jeopardising the cattle's productivity or the quality of their meat and miilk.